RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALONELINESS AND HARSH SUPERVISORY BEHAVIOR AMONG SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISE OWNERS IN JAPAN:
A MODERATED MEDIATION MODEL OF ANGER AND SPIRITUALITY
-
Yusuke Murakami(1*)
Faculty of Letters, Kansai University
-
Jingxuan Wu(2)
Graduate School of Psychology, Kansai University
-
Sumiko Kurioka(3)
Momoyama Gakuin University of Education
(*) Corresponding Author
Keywords:
Solitude, Occupational Stress, Workplace Aggression
Abstract
This study examines the mediating role of anger in the relationship between aloneliness and harsh supervisory behavior (HSB) toward employees among small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) owners and the moderating effect of spirituality on this mediating relationship. We conducted an internet survey to collect responses from 800 SME owners in Japan. The final sample included data from 678 individuals. The mediation/moderated mediation analysis (BCa method, 5,000 iterations) revealed a significant mediating effect of anger in the relationship between aloneliness and HSB, whereas the moderating effect of spirituality was non-significant. These findings suggest that SME owners who perceive a lack of solitary time experience anger more frequently, leading to harsher interactions with employees.
Keywords: Solitude; Occupational Stress; Workplace Aggression
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Bao, H.-W.-S. (2023). bruceR: Broadly useful convenient and efficient R functions (version 2023.9) [Computer software].
https://cran.r-project.org/package=bruceR
Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 59–73. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59
Burger, J. M. (1995). Individual differences in preference for solitude. Journal of Research in Personality, 29(1), 85–108. http://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1995.1005
Coplan, R. J., Hipson, W. E., Archbell, K. A., Ooi, L. L., Baldwin, D., & Bowker, J. C. (2019). Seeking more solitude: Conceptualization, assessment, and implications of aloneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 148, 17–26. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.020
Dambrun, M. (2017). Self-centeredness and selflessness: Happiness correlates and mediating psychological processes. PeerJ, 5, e3306.
http://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3306
Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Peters, J. R., Pond, Jr., R. S., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Both trait and state mindfulness predict lower aggressiveness via anger rumination: A multilevel mediation analysis. Mindfulness, 7(3), 713–726. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0508-x
Erikawa, S., & Yamada, K. (2015). Effect of question formats on item endorsement rates in Web surveys: Comparing check-all and forced-choice question formats [in Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 112–119. http://doi.org/10.14966/jssp.31.2_112
Fernet, C., Torrès, O., Austin, S., & St-Pierre, J. (2016). The psychological costs of owning and managing an SME: Linking job stressors, occupational loneliness, entrepreneurial orientation, and burnout. Burnout Research, 3(2), 45–53. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2016.03.002
Finkel, E. J. (2014). The I3 model: Metatheory, theory, and evidence. In J. M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1-104), Vol. 49. Academic Press.
Garssen, B., Visser, A., & Pool, G. (2021). Does spirituality or religion positively affect mental health? Meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 31(1), 4–20.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2020.1729570
Jackson, J. C., Yam, K. C., Tang, P. M., Sibley, C. G., & Waytz, A. (2023). Exposure to automation explains religious declines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 120(34), e2304748120. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304748120
Kant, L., Skogstad, A., Torsheim, T., & Einarsen, S. (2013). Beware the angry leader: Trait anger and trait anxiety as predictors of petty tyranny. Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 106–124. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.08.005
Kurioka, S., Umanodan, R., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., & Torres, O. (2020). Elucidation of occupational stress of SME managers [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 2, 15–26.
Kurioka, S., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., Umanodan, R., & Torres, O. (2021). Characteristics of occupational stress in small-to-medium enterprise owners-Using semi-structured interviews- [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 3, 29–45.
Kurioka, S., Umanodan, R., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., & Torres, O. (2022). Development of a novel occupational stress scale for Small and Medium Enterprise owners: Results of the scale analysis in the preliminary internet-based survey [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 4, 29–45.
Kurioka, S., Umanodan, R., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., & Torres, O. (2023). Development of a scale on job stressors for Small and Medium Enterprise Owners [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 5, 27–45.
Long, J. A. (2019). Interactions: Comprehensive, user-friendly toolkit for probing interactions (R package version 1.1.0) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=interactions
Mathisen, G. E., Einarsen, S., & Mykletun, R. (2011). The relationship between supervisor personality, supervisors’ perceived stress and workplace bullying. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(4), 637–651. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0674-z
Moro, J., & Matsui, Y. (2019). Supervisory behavior and its influencing factors as perceived by supervisees [in Japanese]. Tsukuba Psychological Research, 57, 29–40.
Nakamura, M. (1998). A study on self-transcendence and subjective well-being: A trial of constructing the tendency for self-transcendence scale [in Japanese]. Bulletin of the Faculty of Education. Educational Sciences, Ehime University. Section 1, 45(1), 59–79.
Nguyen, T. T., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Solitude as an approach to affective self-regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(1), 92–106. http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217733073
Palgi, Y., Segel-Karpas, D., Ost Mor, S., Hoffman, Y., Shrira, A., & Bodner, E. (2021). Positive solitude scale: Theoretical background, development and validation. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22(8), 3357–3384. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00367-4
Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. M. (2000). The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(4), 519–543. http://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(200004)56:4<519::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-1
R Core Team. (2023). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.r-project.org/
Revelle, W. (2022). Psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research (R package version 2.2.5) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=psychVersion=2.2.5
RStudio Team. (2022). RStudio: Integrated development environment for R. RStudio, PBC. http://www.rstudio.com
Shimomitsu, T. (2009). Manual for assessing stress using the brief job stress questionnaire: Toward more effective workplace environment improvements [in Japanese]. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/05-Shingikai-11201000-Roudoukijunkyoku-Soumuka/0000050920.pdf
Small and Medium Enterprise Agency. (2018). White paper on small and medium enterprises in Japan 2018. https://www.chusho.meti.go.jp/pamflet/hakusyo/H30/PDF/2018shohaku_eng.pdf
Stanley, D. (2021). apaTables: Create American Psychological Association (APA) style tables. (R package version 2.0.8) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=apaTables
Swets, J. A., & Cox, C. R. (2022). Aloneliness predicts relational anger and aggression toward romantic partners. Aggressive Behavior, 48(5), 512–523. http://doi.org/10.1002/ab.22044
Tingley, D., Yamamoto, T., Hirose, K., Keele, L., & Imai, K. (2014). Mediation: R package for causal mediation analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 59(5), 1–38. http://www.jstatsoft.org/v59/i05/
Van Cappellen, P., Toth-Gauthier, M., Saroglou, V., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2016). Religion and well-being: The mediating role of positive emotions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(2), 485–505. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9605-5
Van Cappellen, P., Way, B. M., Isgett, S. F., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2016). Effects of oxytocin administration on spirituality and emotional responses to meditation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(10), 1579–1587. http://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw078
Weinstein, N., Hansen, H., & Nguyen, T. (2023). Who feels good in solitude? A qualitative analysis of the personality and mindset factors relating to well-being when alone. European Journal of Social Psychology, 53(7), 1443–1457. http://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2983
Wu, J., & Murakami, Y. (2024). Relationships among aloneliness, stress response, and aggression. The 7th Global Public Health Conference 2024, 103.
Yang, Y. (2023). A daily diary study on stressors, hurt feelings, aggression, and somatic symptoms: The role of rejection sensitivity and negative emotion differentiation. Aggressive Behavior, 49(4), 371–3
https://cran.r-project.org/package=bruceR
Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 59–73. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59
Burger, J. M. (1995). Individual differences in preference for solitude. Journal of Research in Personality, 29(1), 85–108. http://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1995.1005
Coplan, R. J., Hipson, W. E., Archbell, K. A., Ooi, L. L., Baldwin, D., & Bowker, J. C. (2019). Seeking more solitude: Conceptualization, assessment, and implications of aloneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 148, 17–26. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.020
Dambrun, M. (2017). Self-centeredness and selflessness: Happiness correlates and mediating psychological processes. PeerJ, 5, e3306.
http://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3306
Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Peters, J. R., Pond, Jr., R. S., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Both trait and state mindfulness predict lower aggressiveness via anger rumination: A multilevel mediation analysis. Mindfulness, 7(3), 713–726. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0508-x
Erikawa, S., & Yamada, K. (2015). Effect of question formats on item endorsement rates in Web surveys: Comparing check-all and forced-choice question formats [in Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 112–119. http://doi.org/10.14966/jssp.31.2_112
Fernet, C., Torrès, O., Austin, S., & St-Pierre, J. (2016). The psychological costs of owning and managing an SME: Linking job stressors, occupational loneliness, entrepreneurial orientation, and burnout. Burnout Research, 3(2), 45–53. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2016.03.002
Finkel, E. J. (2014). The I3 model: Metatheory, theory, and evidence. In J. M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1-104), Vol. 49. Academic Press.
Garssen, B., Visser, A., & Pool, G. (2021). Does spirituality or religion positively affect mental health? Meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 31(1), 4–20.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2020.1729570
Jackson, J. C., Yam, K. C., Tang, P. M., Sibley, C. G., & Waytz, A. (2023). Exposure to automation explains religious declines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 120(34), e2304748120. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304748120
Kant, L., Skogstad, A., Torsheim, T., & Einarsen, S. (2013). Beware the angry leader: Trait anger and trait anxiety as predictors of petty tyranny. Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 106–124. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.08.005
Kurioka, S., Umanodan, R., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., & Torres, O. (2020). Elucidation of occupational stress of SME managers [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 2, 15–26.
Kurioka, S., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., Umanodan, R., & Torres, O. (2021). Characteristics of occupational stress in small-to-medium enterprise owners-Using semi-structured interviews- [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 3, 29–45.
Kurioka, S., Umanodan, R., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., & Torres, O. (2022). Development of a novel occupational stress scale for Small and Medium Enterprise owners: Results of the scale analysis in the preliminary internet-based survey [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 4, 29–45.
Kurioka, S., Umanodan, R., Kamei, K., Ogyu, H., & Torres, O. (2023). Development of a scale on job stressors for Small and Medium Enterprise Owners [in Japanese]. Bulletin of Momoyama Gakuin University of Education, 5, 27–45.
Long, J. A. (2019). Interactions: Comprehensive, user-friendly toolkit for probing interactions (R package version 1.1.0) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=interactions
Mathisen, G. E., Einarsen, S., & Mykletun, R. (2011). The relationship between supervisor personality, supervisors’ perceived stress and workplace bullying. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(4), 637–651. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0674-z
Moro, J., & Matsui, Y. (2019). Supervisory behavior and its influencing factors as perceived by supervisees [in Japanese]. Tsukuba Psychological Research, 57, 29–40.
Nakamura, M. (1998). A study on self-transcendence and subjective well-being: A trial of constructing the tendency for self-transcendence scale [in Japanese]. Bulletin of the Faculty of Education. Educational Sciences, Ehime University. Section 1, 45(1), 59–79.
Nguyen, T. T., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Solitude as an approach to affective self-regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(1), 92–106. http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217733073
Palgi, Y., Segel-Karpas, D., Ost Mor, S., Hoffman, Y., Shrira, A., & Bodner, E. (2021). Positive solitude scale: Theoretical background, development and validation. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22(8), 3357–3384. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00367-4
Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. M. (2000). The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(4), 519–543. http://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(200004)56:4<519::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-1
R Core Team. (2023). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.r-project.org/
Revelle, W. (2022). Psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research (R package version 2.2.5) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=psychVersion=2.2.5
RStudio Team. (2022). RStudio: Integrated development environment for R. RStudio, PBC. http://www.rstudio.com
Shimomitsu, T. (2009). Manual for assessing stress using the brief job stress questionnaire: Toward more effective workplace environment improvements [in Japanese]. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/05-Shingikai-11201000-Roudoukijunkyoku-Soumuka/0000050920.pdf
Small and Medium Enterprise Agency. (2018). White paper on small and medium enterprises in Japan 2018. https://www.chusho.meti.go.jp/pamflet/hakusyo/H30/PDF/2018shohaku_eng.pdf
Stanley, D. (2021). apaTables: Create American Psychological Association (APA) style tables. (R package version 2.0.8) [Computer software]. https://cran.r-project.org/package=apaTables
Swets, J. A., & Cox, C. R. (2022). Aloneliness predicts relational anger and aggression toward romantic partners. Aggressive Behavior, 48(5), 512–523. http://doi.org/10.1002/ab.22044
Tingley, D., Yamamoto, T., Hirose, K., Keele, L., & Imai, K. (2014). Mediation: R package for causal mediation analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 59(5), 1–38. http://www.jstatsoft.org/v59/i05/
Van Cappellen, P., Toth-Gauthier, M., Saroglou, V., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2016). Religion and well-being: The mediating role of positive emotions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(2), 485–505. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9605-5
Van Cappellen, P., Way, B. M., Isgett, S. F., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2016). Effects of oxytocin administration on spirituality and emotional responses to meditation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(10), 1579–1587. http://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw078
Weinstein, N., Hansen, H., & Nguyen, T. (2023). Who feels good in solitude? A qualitative analysis of the personality and mindset factors relating to well-being when alone. European Journal of Social Psychology, 53(7), 1443–1457. http://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2983
Wu, J., & Murakami, Y. (2024). Relationships among aloneliness, stress response, and aggression. The 7th Global Public Health Conference 2024, 103.
Yang, Y. (2023). A daily diary study on stressors, hurt feelings, aggression, and somatic symptoms: The role of rejection sensitivity and negative emotion differentiation. Aggressive Behavior, 49(4), 371–3
Published
2025-03-01
How to Cite
Murakami, Y., Wu, J., & Kurioka, S. (2025). RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALONELINESS AND HARSH SUPERVISORY BEHAVIOR AMONG SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISE OWNERS IN JAPAN:. Journal of Management : Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), 18(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.35508/jom.v18i1.16373
Section
Articles
