The adoption of Virtual Reality in small to medium tourism enterprises: An application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour
-
Munyaradzi Mutsikiwa(1*)
Department of Management & Hospitality, School of Business Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University
-
Martha Amos(2)
Department of Management & Hospitality, School of Business Sciences, Great Zimbabwe University
(*) Corresponding Author
Keywords:
Virtual Reality, Theory of Planned Behaviour, Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioural Control, Behaviour
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) is increasingly transforming tourism experiences and destination engagement. However, existing research has predominantly examined its adoption through the Technology Acceptance Model, leaving the explanatory potential of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) comparatively underexplored. This study examines the applicability of TPB in explaining tourists’ behavioral intentions and actual behavior toward VR adoption in tourism. Using a quantitative survey design, data were collected from 280 tourists through online and offline questionnaires using convenience sampling. The hypothesized relationships were assessed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS 4. The findings demonstrate that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control significantly influence behavioral intention and actual behavior. Furthermore, behavioral intention significantly mediates the relationship between perceived behavioral control and actual behavior. However, behavioral intention does not significantly mediate the relationships between attitude and actual behavior or between subjective norms and actual behavior. These findings extend the application of TPB to tourism technology adoption by demonstrating that tourists’ evaluations, social influences, and perceived control are relevant to VR-related behavioral outcomes, although their effects operate through different mechanisms. The study also provides practical implications for small and medium-sized tourism enterprises, particularly in developing-country contexts, by emphasizing the importance of fostering favorable attitudes, leveraging relevant social influences, and reducing resource and accessibility barriers to encourage VR adoption. Overall, the findings reinforce the relevance of TPB as a complementary theoretical framework for understanding emerging technology adoption in tourism beyond conventional technology acceptance perspectives.
Keywords: Virtual Reality; Theory of Planned Behaviour; Attitude; Subjective Norms; Perceived Behavioural Control; Behaviour
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Aitken, R., Watkins, L., Williams, J., & Kean, A. (2020). The positive role of labelling on consumers' perceived behavioural control and intention to purchase organic food, Journal of Cleaner Production, 255, 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120334.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. Englewood Cliffs. N. J. Prentice-Hall.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behaviour. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50: 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020.
Ajzen, I. (2020). The theory of planned behaviour: Frequently asked questions. Human Behaviour and Emerging Technologies, 2(4), 314–324.
https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/hbe2.195.
Amuso, V., Poletti, G., & Montibello, D. (2021). Virtual, augmented, and mixed reality: What are the benefits for SMEs? Global Policy, 12(1), 167–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12907.
Bhatti, K.L., Latif, S. & Rao, N. (2014). Knowledge sharing intentions in doctors of private and government hospitals. Issues in Business Management and Economics, 2(8), 28–133. http://www.journalissues.org/IBME/
Beck, L., & Ajzen, I. (1991). Predicting dishonest actions using the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Journal of Research in Personality, 25(3), 285–301.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(91)90021-H.
Buhalis, D., Lin, M. S., & Leung, D. (2023). Metaverse as a driver for customer experience and value co-creation: implications for hospitality and tourism management and marketing. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 35(2), 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-05-2022-0631.
Buhalis, F. D., Lin, B. (2019). A Tourist Typology of Online and Face-to-Face Social Contact: Destination Immersion and Tourism Encapsulation/Decapsulation, Annals of Tourism Research, 78, https://Doi.org/10.1016/J.annals.2019.102757.
Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural Equation Modelling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Sage.
Calisto, M. L., & Sarkar, S. (2024). A systematic review of virtual reality in tourism and hospitality: The known and the paths to follow. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 116, 103623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2023.103623.
Chirisa, I., Mutambisi, T., Chivenge, M., Mbasera, M., Sidambe, M., Muchenje, B., (...) & Zengeni, D. (2020). Scope for virtual tourism in the times of COVID-19 in select African destinations. Journal of Social Sciences, 64(1-3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.31901/24566756.2020/64.1-3.2266.
Chourasia, S., Jodhana, L. S., Verma, B., & Shrivastava, A. (2023). Exploring the potential of augmented reality and virtual reality on the Indian tourism industry. The Gurugram University Business Review, 40–49.
Chourasia, S., Jodhana, L. S., Verma, B., & Shrivastava, A. (2023). Exploring the potential of augmented reality and virtual reality on the Indian tourism industry. In The Gurugram University Business Review (pp.40–49). Gurugram University, India.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika,16(3), 297–334.
Cui, J., & Bell, R. (2022). Behavioural entrepreneurial mindset: How entrepreneurial education activity impacts entrepreneurial intention and behaviour. The International Journal of Management Education, 20(2), 100639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2022.100639.
Falk, R. F., & Miller, N. B. (1992). A Primer for Soft Modelling. University of Akron Press.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behaviour: An Introduction to Theory and Research.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2010). Predicting and changing behaviour: The reasoned action approach. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104.
Gil-Cordero, E., Maldonado-López, B., Ledesma-Chaves, P., & García-Guzmán, A. (2024). Do small-and medium-sized companies intend to use the Metaverse as part of their strategy? A behavioural intention analysis. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 30(2/3), 421–449.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-09-2022-0816.
Gupta, K.P. & Bhaskar, P. (2023). “Teachers’ intention to adopt virtual reality technology in management education”, International Journal of Learning and Change, 15(1), 28–50, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLC.2023.127719.
Hair Jr., J., Sarstedt, M., Hopkins, L., & Kuppelwieser, V. G. (2014). Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM): An emerging tool in business research.European Business Review,26(2), 106–121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2014.02.007.
Han, H., Hsu, L. T. J., & Sheu, C. (2010). Application of the theory of planned behaviour to green hotel choice: Testing the effect of environmentally friendly activities. Tourism Management, 31(3), 325-334.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.013.
Han, H., Meng, B., & Kim, W. (2017). Emerging bicycle tourism and the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of sustainable tourism, 25(2), 292-309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1202955.
Hoang, S. D., Nguyen, D. T., & Pham, M. (2024, August). Virtual Reality as a Tool for Destination Marketing of Sustainable Tourism During the COVID-19 Pandemic. In Disruptive Technology and Business Continuity: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Business (ICB, 2023) (pp 103-118). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
Hong, W. C. H. (2023). The impact of ChatGPT on foreign language teaching and learning: Opportunities in education and research. Journal of Educational Technology and Innovation, 5(1), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100174.
Hsu, C. H., & Huang, S. (2010). Formation of tourist behavioural intention and actual behaviour. In 2010, the 7th International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management (pp 1–6). IEEE. https://doi.org/ 10.1109/ICSSSM.2010.5530150.
Hsu, C. H., & Huang, S. (2012). An extension of the theory of planned behaviour model for tourists. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36(3), 390–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348010390817.
Huang, H. M., & Liaw, S. S. (2018). An analysis of learners’ intentions toward virtual reality learning based on constructivist and technology acceptance approaches. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19(1), 91–95. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i1.2503.
Hulland, J. (1999). Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: A review of four recent studies. Strategic Management Journal, 20(2), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266.
Hwang, J., Kim, I., & Gulzar, M. A. (2020). Understanding the eco-friendly role of drone food delivery services: Deepening the theory of planned behaviour. Sustainability, 12(4), 1–12. https://doi:10.3390/su12041440.
Ifedayo, A. E., Ziden, A. A., & Ismail, A. B. (2021). Podcast acceptance for pedagogy: The levels and significant influences. Heliyon, 7(3), e06442. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.heliyon. 2021.e06442.
Islam, M., Low, P. K. C., & Hasan, I. (2013). Intention to use advanced mobile phone services (AMPS). Management Decision, 51(4), 824–838.
https://doi.org/10.1108/00251741311326590.
Kieanwatana, K., & Vongvit, R. (2024). Virtual reality in tourism: The impact of virtual experiences and destination image on travel intention. Results in Engineering, 24, 103650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103650.
Kim, K. J., & Shin, D. H. (2015). An acceptance model for smart watches: Implications for the adoption of future wearable technology. Internet Research, 25(4), 527–541. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-05-2014-0126.
Kozak, M., & Correia, A. (2025). From mass marketing to personalised digital marketing in tourism: a 2050 horizon paper. Tourism Review, 80(1), 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2024-0169.
Lee, E. B., Lee, S. G., & Yang, C. G. (2017). The influence of advertisement attitude and brand attitude on smartphone purchase intention. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 117(6), 1011–1036. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-06-2016-0229.
Liu, M. T., Liu, Y., & Mo, Z. (2020). Moral norm is the key: An extension of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) on Chinese consumers' green purchase intention. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 32(8), 1823-1841. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-05-2019-0285.
Liu, K., Zhang, W., Li, W., Wang, T., & Zheng, Y. (2023). Effectiveness of virtual reality in nursing education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Medical Education, 23(1), 710. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04662.
Loureiro, S. M. C., Guerreiro, J., & Ali, F. (2020). 20 years of research on virtual reality and augmented reality in the tourism context: A text-mining approach. Tourism Management, 77, 104028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.104028.
Lu, J., Xiao, X., Xu, Z., Wang, C., Zhang, M., & Zhou, Y. (2021). The potential of virtual tourism in the recovery of the tourism industry during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 25(3), 441–457.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1959526.
Lu, Y. J., Lai, H. R., Lin, P. C., Kuo, S. Y., Chen, S. R., & Lee, P. H. (2022). Predicting exercise behaviours and intentions of Taiwanese urban high school students using the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 62, e39-e44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2021.07.001.
Lutz, R. J. (1985). Affective and cognitive antecedents of attitude toward the Ad: A conceptual framework. In L. F. Alwitt & A. A. Mitchell (Eds.), Psychological Processes and Advertising Effects: Theory, Research and Application (Pp 45–63). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Mafabi, S., Nasiima, S., Muhimbise, E. M., Kasekende, F., & Nakiyonga, C. (2017). The mediation role of intention in knowledge-sharing behaviour. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems, 47(2), 172–193. https://doi.org/10.1108/vjikms-02- 2016-0008.
Njerekai, C. (2020). An application of the virtual reality 360° concept to the Great Zimbabwe monument. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 15(5), 567–579. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743873X.2019.1696808.
Paliwal, M., Chatradhi, N., Singh, A., & Dikkatwar, R. (2024). Smart tourism: antecedents to Indian travellers' decisions. European Journal of Innovation Management,27(5), 1521–1546. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejim-06-2022-0293.
Pallant, J. (2020). SPSS Survival Manual: A step-by-step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. Routledge.
Pencarelli, T. (2020). The digital revolution in the travel and tourism industry. Information Technology & Tourism, 22(3), 455-476.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40558-019-00160-3.
Pessot, E., Zangiacomi, A. & Sacco, M. (2025). Exploring SMEs' innovation paths with augmented and virtual reality technologies. European Journal of Innovation Management, 28(3), 1181–1201. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJIM-02-2023-0118.
Rahim, N. Z. A., Nasaruddin, N. I. S., Shah, N. B. A., Halim, F. H., Samah, K. A. F. A., Saman, F. I., & Rum, S. F. M. (2021, July). Aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism industry: A review of the virtual tourism platform. In AIP Conference Proceedings, 2347(1), AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0052855.
RTG. (2023). Virtual Reality in Tourism: A Comprehensive Market Analysis and Future Outlook 2023-2030. RTG Consulting Group.
Ryu, K., Promsivapallop, P., Kannaovakun, P., Kim, M., & Insuwanno, P. (2023). Residents’ risk perceptions, willingness to accept international tourists, and self-protective behaviour during destination re-opening amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 26(8), 1367–1383.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2022.2054782.
Saleem, M., Kamarudin, S., Shoaib, H. M., & Nasar, A. (2022). Retail consumers' behavioural intention to use augmented reality mobile apps in Pakistan. Journal of Internet Commerce, 21(4), 497–525.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15332861.2021.1975427.
Sann, R., Jansom, S., & Muennaburan, T. (2024). An extension of the theory of planned behaviour in Thailand cycling tourism: The mediating role of the attractiveness of sustainable alternatives. Leisure Studies, 43(1), 47–61.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2023.2182346
Seong, B. H., & Hong, C. Y. (2023). Decision-making in virtual-reality sports games is explained through the lens of extended planned behaviour theory. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 592. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010592.
Shalender, K., & Sharma, N. (2021). Using the extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to predict the adoption intention of electric vehicles in India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(1), 665–681.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00602-7.
Shi, J. G., Xu, K., Si, H., Song, L., & Duan, K. (2021). Investigating intention and behaviour towards sorting household waste in Chinese rural and urban-rural integration areas. Journal of Cleaner Production, 298, 126827.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126827.
Singh, S., Sharma, P. K., Moon, S. Y., & Park, J. H. (2024). Advanced lightweight encryption algorithms for IoT devices: survey, challenges and solutions. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanised Computing, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-017-0494-4.
Sousa, N., Alén, E., Losada, N., & Melo, M. (2024). Virtual Reality in Tourism Promotion: A Research Agenda Based on A Bibliometric Approach. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 25(2), 313–342.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1528008X.2022.2112807
Sternad, S., & Bobek, S. (2013). Impacts of TAM-based external factors on ERP acceptance. Procedia Technology, 9, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2013.12.004.
Venkatesh, V., Thong, J. Y., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Quarterly, 157-178. https://doi.org/10.2307/41410412
Verbeke, W. (2005). Consumer acceptance of functional foods: socio-demographic, cognitive and attitudinal determinants. Food quality and preference, 16(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2004.01.001
Verbeke W., & Vackier I. (2005). Individual determinants of fish consumption: application of the theory of planned behaviour. Appetite,44(1):67–82.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2004.08.006.
Vishwakarma, P., Mukherjee, S., & Datta, B. (2020). Antecedents of the adoption of virtual reality for destination experience: A study of Indian consumers. Tourism Recreation Research, 45(1), 42–56.
https://doi:10.1080/02508281.2019.1638565.
Vrontis, D., Chaudhuri, R., & Chatterjee, S. (2022). Adoption of Digital Technologies by SMEs for Sustainability and Value Creation: Moderating Role of Entrepreneurial Orientation. Sustainability, 14(7949). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137949.
Wang, L., Wong, P. P. W., Narayanan Alagas, E., & Chee, W. M. (2019). Green hotel selection of Chinese consumers: A planned behaviour perspective. Journal of China Tourism Research, 15(2), 192–212.
https://doi.org/doi:10.1080/19388160.2018.1553743.
World Travel & Tourism Council (2023). Global Economic Impact & Trends 2023. Retrieved from: https://wttc.org/research/economic-impact.
Yeo, V. C. S., Goh, S. K., & Rezaei, S. (2017). Consumer experiences, attitude and behavioural intention toward online food delivery (OFD) services. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 35, 150–162.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2016.12.013.
Yitbarek, T., & Zeleke, S. (2013). Analysis of factors influencing customers’ intention to adopt e-banking service channels in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia: An integration of TAM, TPB, and PR. European Scientific Journal, 9(13), 402-417.
Zaremohzzabieh, Z., Ahrari, S., Krauss, S. E., Samah, A. A., Meng, L. K., & Ariffin, Z. (2019). Predicting social entrepreneurial intention: A meta-analytic path analysis based on the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Business Research, 96, 264–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.030.
Zhang, S.N., Li, Y.Q., Ruan, W.Q., Liu, C.H. (2022). Would you enjoy virtual travel? The characteristics and causes of virtual tourists’ sentiment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tourism Management, 88, 104429.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104429.
Zheng, D., Huang, C., & Oraltay, B. (2023). Digital cultural tourism: progress and a proposed framework for future research. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 28(3), 234–253.
Zheng, S., Wang, Z., & Wachenheim, C. J. (2019). Technology adoption among farmers in Jilin Province, China: The case of aerial pesticide application. China Agricultural Economic Review, 11(1), 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1108/CAER-11-2017-0216
Zhu, J., Jiang, Y., Wang, Y., Yang, Q. & Li, W. (2024). Richness and dynamics: how to improve virtual reality tourism adoption with virtual social clues, Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 18(1), 142–158.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-09-2022-0298
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120334.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. Englewood Cliffs. N. J. Prentice-Hall.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behaviour. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50: 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020.
Ajzen, I. (2020). The theory of planned behaviour: Frequently asked questions. Human Behaviour and Emerging Technologies, 2(4), 314–324.
https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/hbe2.195.
Amuso, V., Poletti, G., & Montibello, D. (2021). Virtual, augmented, and mixed reality: What are the benefits for SMEs? Global Policy, 12(1), 167–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12907.
Bhatti, K.L., Latif, S. & Rao, N. (2014). Knowledge sharing intentions in doctors of private and government hospitals. Issues in Business Management and Economics, 2(8), 28–133. http://www.journalissues.org/IBME/
Beck, L., & Ajzen, I. (1991). Predicting dishonest actions using the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Journal of Research in Personality, 25(3), 285–301.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(91)90021-H.
Buhalis, D., Lin, M. S., & Leung, D. (2023). Metaverse as a driver for customer experience and value co-creation: implications for hospitality and tourism management and marketing. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 35(2), 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-05-2022-0631.
Buhalis, F. D., Lin, B. (2019). A Tourist Typology of Online and Face-to-Face Social Contact: Destination Immersion and Tourism Encapsulation/Decapsulation, Annals of Tourism Research, 78, https://Doi.org/10.1016/J.annals.2019.102757.
Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural Equation Modelling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Sage.
Calisto, M. L., & Sarkar, S. (2024). A systematic review of virtual reality in tourism and hospitality: The known and the paths to follow. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 116, 103623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2023.103623.
Chirisa, I., Mutambisi, T., Chivenge, M., Mbasera, M., Sidambe, M., Muchenje, B., (...) & Zengeni, D. (2020). Scope for virtual tourism in the times of COVID-19 in select African destinations. Journal of Social Sciences, 64(1-3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.31901/24566756.2020/64.1-3.2266.
Chourasia, S., Jodhana, L. S., Verma, B., & Shrivastava, A. (2023). Exploring the potential of augmented reality and virtual reality on the Indian tourism industry. The Gurugram University Business Review, 40–49.
Chourasia, S., Jodhana, L. S., Verma, B., & Shrivastava, A. (2023). Exploring the potential of augmented reality and virtual reality on the Indian tourism industry. In The Gurugram University Business Review (pp.40–49). Gurugram University, India.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika,16(3), 297–334.
Cui, J., & Bell, R. (2022). Behavioural entrepreneurial mindset: How entrepreneurial education activity impacts entrepreneurial intention and behaviour. The International Journal of Management Education, 20(2), 100639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2022.100639.
Falk, R. F., & Miller, N. B. (1992). A Primer for Soft Modelling. University of Akron Press.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behaviour: An Introduction to Theory and Research.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2010). Predicting and changing behaviour: The reasoned action approach. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104.
Gil-Cordero, E., Maldonado-López, B., Ledesma-Chaves, P., & García-Guzmán, A. (2024). Do small-and medium-sized companies intend to use the Metaverse as part of their strategy? A behavioural intention analysis. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 30(2/3), 421–449.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-09-2022-0816.
Gupta, K.P. & Bhaskar, P. (2023). “Teachers’ intention to adopt virtual reality technology in management education”, International Journal of Learning and Change, 15(1), 28–50, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLC.2023.127719.
Hair Jr., J., Sarstedt, M., Hopkins, L., & Kuppelwieser, V. G. (2014). Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM): An emerging tool in business research.European Business Review,26(2), 106–121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2014.02.007.
Han, H., Hsu, L. T. J., & Sheu, C. (2010). Application of the theory of planned behaviour to green hotel choice: Testing the effect of environmentally friendly activities. Tourism Management, 31(3), 325-334.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.013.
Han, H., Meng, B., & Kim, W. (2017). Emerging bicycle tourism and the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of sustainable tourism, 25(2), 292-309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1202955.
Hoang, S. D., Nguyen, D. T., & Pham, M. (2024, August). Virtual Reality as a Tool for Destination Marketing of Sustainable Tourism During the COVID-19 Pandemic. In Disruptive Technology and Business Continuity: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Business (ICB, 2023) (pp 103-118). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
Hong, W. C. H. (2023). The impact of ChatGPT on foreign language teaching and learning: Opportunities in education and research. Journal of Educational Technology and Innovation, 5(1), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100174.
Hsu, C. H., & Huang, S. (2010). Formation of tourist behavioural intention and actual behaviour. In 2010, the 7th International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management (pp 1–6). IEEE. https://doi.org/ 10.1109/ICSSSM.2010.5530150.
Hsu, C. H., & Huang, S. (2012). An extension of the theory of planned behaviour model for tourists. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36(3), 390–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348010390817.
Huang, H. M., & Liaw, S. S. (2018). An analysis of learners’ intentions toward virtual reality learning based on constructivist and technology acceptance approaches. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19(1), 91–95. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i1.2503.
Hulland, J. (1999). Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: A review of four recent studies. Strategic Management Journal, 20(2), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266.
Hwang, J., Kim, I., & Gulzar, M. A. (2020). Understanding the eco-friendly role of drone food delivery services: Deepening the theory of planned behaviour. Sustainability, 12(4), 1–12. https://doi:10.3390/su12041440.
Ifedayo, A. E., Ziden, A. A., & Ismail, A. B. (2021). Podcast acceptance for pedagogy: The levels and significant influences. Heliyon, 7(3), e06442. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.heliyon. 2021.e06442.
Islam, M., Low, P. K. C., & Hasan, I. (2013). Intention to use advanced mobile phone services (AMPS). Management Decision, 51(4), 824–838.
https://doi.org/10.1108/00251741311326590.
Kieanwatana, K., & Vongvit, R. (2024). Virtual reality in tourism: The impact of virtual experiences and destination image on travel intention. Results in Engineering, 24, 103650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103650.
Kim, K. J., & Shin, D. H. (2015). An acceptance model for smart watches: Implications for the adoption of future wearable technology. Internet Research, 25(4), 527–541. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-05-2014-0126.
Kozak, M., & Correia, A. (2025). From mass marketing to personalised digital marketing in tourism: a 2050 horizon paper. Tourism Review, 80(1), 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2024-0169.
Lee, E. B., Lee, S. G., & Yang, C. G. (2017). The influence of advertisement attitude and brand attitude on smartphone purchase intention. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 117(6), 1011–1036. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-06-2016-0229.
Liu, M. T., Liu, Y., & Mo, Z. (2020). Moral norm is the key: An extension of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) on Chinese consumers' green purchase intention. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 32(8), 1823-1841. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-05-2019-0285.
Liu, K., Zhang, W., Li, W., Wang, T., & Zheng, Y. (2023). Effectiveness of virtual reality in nursing education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Medical Education, 23(1), 710. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04662.
Loureiro, S. M. C., Guerreiro, J., & Ali, F. (2020). 20 years of research on virtual reality and augmented reality in the tourism context: A text-mining approach. Tourism Management, 77, 104028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.104028.
Lu, J., Xiao, X., Xu, Z., Wang, C., Zhang, M., & Zhou, Y. (2021). The potential of virtual tourism in the recovery of the tourism industry during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 25(3), 441–457.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1959526.
Lu, Y. J., Lai, H. R., Lin, P. C., Kuo, S. Y., Chen, S. R., & Lee, P. H. (2022). Predicting exercise behaviours and intentions of Taiwanese urban high school students using the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 62, e39-e44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2021.07.001.
Lutz, R. J. (1985). Affective and cognitive antecedents of attitude toward the Ad: A conceptual framework. In L. F. Alwitt & A. A. Mitchell (Eds.), Psychological Processes and Advertising Effects: Theory, Research and Application (Pp 45–63). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Mafabi, S., Nasiima, S., Muhimbise, E. M., Kasekende, F., & Nakiyonga, C. (2017). The mediation role of intention in knowledge-sharing behaviour. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems, 47(2), 172–193. https://doi.org/10.1108/vjikms-02- 2016-0008.
Njerekai, C. (2020). An application of the virtual reality 360° concept to the Great Zimbabwe monument. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 15(5), 567–579. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743873X.2019.1696808.
Paliwal, M., Chatradhi, N., Singh, A., & Dikkatwar, R. (2024). Smart tourism: antecedents to Indian travellers' decisions. European Journal of Innovation Management,27(5), 1521–1546. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejim-06-2022-0293.
Pallant, J. (2020). SPSS Survival Manual: A step-by-step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. Routledge.
Pencarelli, T. (2020). The digital revolution in the travel and tourism industry. Information Technology & Tourism, 22(3), 455-476.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40558-019-00160-3.
Pessot, E., Zangiacomi, A. & Sacco, M. (2025). Exploring SMEs' innovation paths with augmented and virtual reality technologies. European Journal of Innovation Management, 28(3), 1181–1201. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJIM-02-2023-0118.
Rahim, N. Z. A., Nasaruddin, N. I. S., Shah, N. B. A., Halim, F. H., Samah, K. A. F. A., Saman, F. I., & Rum, S. F. M. (2021, July). Aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism industry: A review of the virtual tourism platform. In AIP Conference Proceedings, 2347(1), AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0052855.
RTG. (2023). Virtual Reality in Tourism: A Comprehensive Market Analysis and Future Outlook 2023-2030. RTG Consulting Group.
Ryu, K., Promsivapallop, P., Kannaovakun, P., Kim, M., & Insuwanno, P. (2023). Residents’ risk perceptions, willingness to accept international tourists, and self-protective behaviour during destination re-opening amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 26(8), 1367–1383.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2022.2054782.
Saleem, M., Kamarudin, S., Shoaib, H. M., & Nasar, A. (2022). Retail consumers' behavioural intention to use augmented reality mobile apps in Pakistan. Journal of Internet Commerce, 21(4), 497–525.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15332861.2021.1975427.
Sann, R., Jansom, S., & Muennaburan, T. (2024). An extension of the theory of planned behaviour in Thailand cycling tourism: The mediating role of the attractiveness of sustainable alternatives. Leisure Studies, 43(1), 47–61.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2023.2182346
Seong, B. H., & Hong, C. Y. (2023). Decision-making in virtual-reality sports games is explained through the lens of extended planned behaviour theory. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 592. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010592.
Shalender, K., & Sharma, N. (2021). Using the extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to predict the adoption intention of electric vehicles in India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(1), 665–681.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00602-7.
Shi, J. G., Xu, K., Si, H., Song, L., & Duan, K. (2021). Investigating intention and behaviour towards sorting household waste in Chinese rural and urban-rural integration areas. Journal of Cleaner Production, 298, 126827.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126827.
Singh, S., Sharma, P. K., Moon, S. Y., & Park, J. H. (2024). Advanced lightweight encryption algorithms for IoT devices: survey, challenges and solutions. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanised Computing, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-017-0494-4.
Sousa, N., Alén, E., Losada, N., & Melo, M. (2024). Virtual Reality in Tourism Promotion: A Research Agenda Based on A Bibliometric Approach. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 25(2), 313–342.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1528008X.2022.2112807
Sternad, S., & Bobek, S. (2013). Impacts of TAM-based external factors on ERP acceptance. Procedia Technology, 9, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2013.12.004.
Venkatesh, V., Thong, J. Y., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Quarterly, 157-178. https://doi.org/10.2307/41410412
Verbeke, W. (2005). Consumer acceptance of functional foods: socio-demographic, cognitive and attitudinal determinants. Food quality and preference, 16(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2004.01.001
Verbeke W., & Vackier I. (2005). Individual determinants of fish consumption: application of the theory of planned behaviour. Appetite,44(1):67–82.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2004.08.006.
Vishwakarma, P., Mukherjee, S., & Datta, B. (2020). Antecedents of the adoption of virtual reality for destination experience: A study of Indian consumers. Tourism Recreation Research, 45(1), 42–56.
https://doi:10.1080/02508281.2019.1638565.
Vrontis, D., Chaudhuri, R., & Chatterjee, S. (2022). Adoption of Digital Technologies by SMEs for Sustainability and Value Creation: Moderating Role of Entrepreneurial Orientation. Sustainability, 14(7949). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137949.
Wang, L., Wong, P. P. W., Narayanan Alagas, E., & Chee, W. M. (2019). Green hotel selection of Chinese consumers: A planned behaviour perspective. Journal of China Tourism Research, 15(2), 192–212.
https://doi.org/doi:10.1080/19388160.2018.1553743.
World Travel & Tourism Council (2023). Global Economic Impact & Trends 2023. Retrieved from: https://wttc.org/research/economic-impact.
Yeo, V. C. S., Goh, S. K., & Rezaei, S. (2017). Consumer experiences, attitude and behavioural intention toward online food delivery (OFD) services. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 35, 150–162.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2016.12.013.
Yitbarek, T., & Zeleke, S. (2013). Analysis of factors influencing customers’ intention to adopt e-banking service channels in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia: An integration of TAM, TPB, and PR. European Scientific Journal, 9(13), 402-417.
Zaremohzzabieh, Z., Ahrari, S., Krauss, S. E., Samah, A. A., Meng, L. K., & Ariffin, Z. (2019). Predicting social entrepreneurial intention: A meta-analytic path analysis based on the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Business Research, 96, 264–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.030.
Zhang, S.N., Li, Y.Q., Ruan, W.Q., Liu, C.H. (2022). Would you enjoy virtual travel? The characteristics and causes of virtual tourists’ sentiment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tourism Management, 88, 104429.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104429.
Zheng, D., Huang, C., & Oraltay, B. (2023). Digital cultural tourism: progress and a proposed framework for future research. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 28(3), 234–253.
Zheng, S., Wang, Z., & Wachenheim, C. J. (2019). Technology adoption among farmers in Jilin Province, China: The case of aerial pesticide application. China Agricultural Economic Review, 11(1), 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1108/CAER-11-2017-0216
Zhu, J., Jiang, Y., Wang, Y., Yang, Q. & Li, W. (2024). Richness and dynamics: how to improve virtual reality tourism adoption with virtual social clues, Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 18(1), 142–158.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-09-2022-0298
Published
2026-11-01
How to Cite
Mutsikiwa, M., & Amos, M. (2026). The adoption of Virtual Reality in small to medium tourism enterprises: An application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Journal of Management : Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), 19(3), 2123-2141. https://doi.org/10.35508/jom.v19i3.28560
Section
Articles
